The long-standing tension between Israel and its neighbouring countries is often attributed to deep-rooted enmity in the Islamic faith, particularly due to its historical stance on Judaism. Critics argue that hostility towards Jews is embedded within the tenets of Islam, a claim that gains traction, especially given the lack of substantial Muslim opposition to it. Mustafa Akyol addresses this thorny issue in The Islamic Moses, where he confronts the complex history of Muslim-Jewish relations. Akyol’s argument challenges the prevailing narrative that Islamic history is defined solely by contemporary antagonisms, reminding readers of over a millennium of shared experience between Jews and Muslims.
Akyol highlights that Moses was, for Muhammad, not an enemy but a profound source of inspiration. This perspective is crucial when considering the origins of Islam and its early relationship with Judaism. Before the rise of Islam, Arabia was a fragmented region, caught between the Byzantine and Persian empires, with neither having much success in imposing their rule. The Arab tribes were fiercely independent, rejecting both foreign domination and centralised authority. This began to change when Muhammad emerged as a prophet, claiming that a new faith would unite the diverse tribes of Arabia.
One of the key influences on Muhammad’s vision was Judaism. The Qur’an mentions Moses more frequently than any other historical figure—no fewer than 137 times. This suggests that the connection between Moses and Muhammad was not merely symbolic but one of profound theological and political import. The careers of Moses and Muhammad share striking similarities: both confronted established elites—Moses in Egypt and Muhammad in Mecca—both led their followers into migration—Moses to Canaan, Muhammad to Medina—and both established religious ordinances that continue to influence their respective communities. Akyol points to the striking parallels between the Hebrew term ribbit (usury) and the Arabic riba, or between the Hebrew sadaka (welfare) and the Arabic zakat (almsgiving), as evidence of shared religious and moral principles.
Despite these early religious connections, friction between Jews and Muslims erupted shortly after the establishment of the Islamic state in Medina. The catalyst for this was political, not religious. During the Battle of the Trench in 627, the Muslim community in Medina was besieged by hostile Arab forces, and there were rumours that the Jewish tribes in the city had secretly supported the enemy. As a result, the Jews were accused of treason, leading to the execution of many men from the Jewish tribes. This was not a conflict rooted in religious doctrine, but in political and military concerns over loyalty and power.
Over the centuries, however, Jewish and Muslim communities found ways to coexist, despite their religious differences. In both commerce and architecture, Jews and Muslims shared practices, often collaborating in mutually beneficial ways. Jewish and Muslim merchants traded in similar ways, and Jewish and Christian artisans contributed to the architectural achievements of Islamic societies. The Islamic empire, at its peak, was characterised by a cosmopolitan intellectual environment, where leading theologians from all three Abrahamic faiths—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—debated and sought common ground on theological matters.
One of the most remarkable periods of Jewish-Islamic intellectual exchange occurred between the 11th and 13th centuries, when figures like Moses Maimonides and Rashi in Judaism, Ghazali and Averroes in Islam, and Thomas Aquinas in Christianity shaped the theological landscape. During this time, both Jewish and Islamic theologians embraced reasoned discourse and philosophical inquiry, contributing to an intellectual flourishing that produced works still studied today.
However, by the late Middle Ages, Islamic culture began to lose its creative edge. In contrast, Europe saw increasing hostility toward ethnic minorities. Jews in Spain and Muslims in Italy faced forced conversions or exile, while the Ottoman Empire, led by the Caliph in Istanbul, welcomed Jewish refugees, offering them sanctuary and the right to settle in Turkey. The Ottomans’ relatively tolerant approach toward religious minorities allowed Jewish subjects to flourish, with Jewish emancipation occurring between 1839 and 1876, a century before Britain granted full civil rights to Jews.
In the 18th century, the Enlightenment shifted the study of religion away from religious institutions and into the realm of universities. Scholars began to uncover the connections between Judaism and Islam, with figures like Abraham Geiger and Julius Wellhausen leading the charge in recognising shared elements between the two faiths. This intellectual curiosity culminated in the late 19th century, when the study of the three Abrahamic religions was no longer confined to religious scholars but became a subject of academic enquiry.
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By the 20th century, the hope for a new era of Muslim-Jewish symbiosis seemed possible. However, political realities soon overshadowed cultural and intellectual progress. The rise of nationalism, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the increasing politicisation of religion ensured that culture and politics continued to pull in different directions. Nonetheless, there remain instances of Muslim-Jewish cooperation, with figures like Shlomo Goitein and Maxime Rodinson bridging the gap between the two cultures through academic exchange.
Mustafa Akyol, a Turkish public intellectual and fellow at the Cato Institute, concludes his book The Islamic Moses in the shadow of the October 2023 Hamas massacre, a tragic reminder of the current political strife that often overshadows the long history of mutual respect between Jews and Muslims. In light of this, Akyol hopes that his work will contribute to a new era of dialogue, helping to bridge the divide between two peoples with a shared, yet complicated, history.
